Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors
Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors
Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors
Certain qualities belong potentially to everyone, but leaders possess these qualities to an exceptional degree. The following is a discussion of 10 qualities that mark a leader and help influence the leadership process—vision, ability, enthusiasm, stability, concern for others, self-confidence, persistence, vitality, charisma, and integrity.33
■ Vision. The first requirement for a leader is a strong sense of purpose. A vision of what could and should be is a basic force that enables the leader to recognize what must be done and to do it. Vision inspires others and causes the leader to accept the duties of leadership, whether pleasant or unpleasant. A sense of vision is especially powerful when it embodies a common cause—overcoming tyranny, stamping out hunger, or improving the human condition.
Native Americans believe that the leader should look to the seventh generation when making decisions today, and this will ensure that a vision is sound and just. Antoïne de Saint-Exupéry once commented on the imaginative nature of vision, saying, “A rock pile ceases to be a rock pile the moment a single man contemplates it, bearing within him the image of a cathedral.”34
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Examples of leadership vision and its power can be seen in computer pioneer Steve Jobs, who foresaw a computer on every desktop and in every home, and in business entrepreneur Bill Gates, who asked the optimistic and compelling question, Where do you want to go today? Jobs of Apple and Gates of Microsoft have altered business and society in irreversible ways.
If you are the leader of a work group or an organization, you should ask, Do I have a plan? What is my vision of what this department or organization should be?
■ Ability. The leader must know the job—or invite loss of respect. It helps if the leader has done the job before and done it well. Employees seldom respect the individual who constantly must rely on others when making decisions, giving guidance, or solving problems. Although employees usually show a great deal of patience with a new leader, they will lose faith in someone who fails to gain an understanding of the job within a reasonable period of time. Also, the leader must keep job knowledge current. Failure to keep up leads to lack of confidence and loss of employee support. Finally, a leader must have a keen mind to understand information, formulate strategies, and make correct decisions.35
Leaders should ask, How competent am I? Am I current in my field? Do I set an example and serve as a resource for my employees because I keep job knowledge current? Mentally, are my perceptions accurate, is my memory good, are my judgments sound?
■ Enthusiasm. Genuine enthusiasm is an important trait of a good leader. Enthusiasm is a form of persuasiveness that causes others to become interested and willing to accept what the leader is attempting to accomplish. Enthusiasm, like other human emotions—laughter, joy, happiness—is contagious. Enthusiasm shown by a
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leader generates enthusiasm in followers. As Harry Truman once said, “The successful man has enthusiasm. Good work is never done in cold blood; heat is needed to forge anything. Every great achievement is the story of a flaming heart.”36
If you are a leader, you must ask, Do I care personally and deeply about what I am doing? Do I show this to my employees? Does my enthusiasm ignite others to take action?
■ Stability. The leader must understand her or his own world and how it relates to the world of others. One cannot solve the equation of others when preoccupied with the equation of self. Empathy for employees cannot be developed if the leader is emotionally involved with personal problems. Problems with alcohol, problems with money, and problems with relationships are fertile fields for emotional instability. A display of emotional instability places the leader in a precarious position with regard to employees, because they will question the leader’s objectivity and judgment. Leaving personal problems at home allows the leader to think more clearly and to perform more effectively on the job. One can see the consequences of loss of stability with examples ranging from the fall of Alexander the Great to the fall of Captain Queeg in The Caine Mutiny.
The leader must ask, Do I possess objectivity? Do I convey stability to my employees? Do they trust that personal problems will not interfere with my judgment?
■ Concern for others. At the heart of caring leadership is concern for others. The leader must not look down on others or treat them as machines—replaceable and interchangeable. The leader must be sincerely and deeply concerned about the welfare of people. The character of caring stands in clear contrast to the character of bullying. The caring leader never tears down, belittles, or diminishes people. The leader must also possess humility and selflessness to the extent that, whenever possible, others’ interests are considered first. Concern for others requires patience and listening, and the result is trust, the bedrock of loyalty. Loyalty to followers generates loyalty to the leader; and when tasks become truly difficult, loyalty carries the day.
Leaders must question, Do I truly care about my employees as people, or do I view them more as tools to meet my goals? Do I ever demean people, or do I always lift them up? If I value my employees, do they know it?
■ Self-confidence. Confidence in one’s ability gives the leader inner strength to overcome difficult tasks. If leaders lack self-confidence, people may question their authority and may even disobey orders. Researchers at the Center for Creative Leadership have found that successful leaders remain calm and confident even during intense situations. By demonstrating grace under pressure, they inspire those around them to stay calm and act intelligently. According to football quarterback Roger Staubach, the key to self-confidence is how hard the leader works: “Confidence comes from hours, days, weeks, and years of preparation and dedication. When I’m in the last two minutes of a December playoff game, I’m drawing confidence from windsprints I did the previous March. It’s just a circle: work and confidence.”
A sign of self-confidence is for the leader to remain calm under pressure. Actor and director Clint Eastwood explains: “If you start yelling, you give the impression of insecurity, and that becomes infectious. It bleeds down into the actors, and they become nervous; then it bleeds down into the crew, and they become nervous, and you don’t get much accomplished that way. You have to set a tone and just demand a certain amount of tranquility.”37
A leader must ask, What is my self-confidence level? Do I show confidence in my actions? Have I done the homework and preparation needed to build self-confidence?
■ Persistence. The leader must have drive and determination to stick with difficult tasks until they are completed. According to Niccolò Machiavelli, “There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain as to success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.”38 Israeli prime minister Golda Meir referred to the quality of persistence when she advised that things do not just occur in one’s life. She encouraged people to believe, be persistent, and struggle to overcome life’s obstacles.39
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Abraham Lincoln identified resolution to succeed to be the most important leadership quality. In a speech to Congress June 20, 1848, Lincoln said, “Determine that the thing can and shall be done, and then we shall find a way.” Leaders from Walt Disney to Ray Kroc, founder of McDonald’s, have shown the importance of persistence for business success, and military leaders from Ulysses Grant to George Patton have proved its importance on the battlefield. However, no better example exists to show the importance of fierce resolve as a leadership quality than that of Winston Churchill. Historians agree that this leader, with his bulldog will, was a determining element in the success of the Allied nations in defeating the Axis powers in World War II. In the face of impossible odds and seemingly certain defeat, Churchill rallied his people. Simply, he would not give in; he would not give up.40
If you are the leader, ask, Do I have self-drive and unflagging persistence to overcome adversity even when others lose their strength and their will?
■ Vitality. Even if the spirit is willing, strength and stamina are needed to fulfill the tasks of leadership. Effective leaders are typically described as electric, vigorous, active, and full of life, no matter how old they are or if they are physically disabled. Consider Franklin Roosevelt, who had polio, and Helen Keller, who was blind and deaf. It is interesting to note that at one point in recent history, the American President Ronald Reagan, the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II, and the Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran were all over 70 years of age—and more vital than many people half their age. At all ages, leaders require tremendous energy and stamina to achieve success. The caring leader must have health and vigor to pursue his or her goals. Physical checkups and physical fitness are commonsense acts. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
Leaders must ask, Am I fit for the tasks of leadership? Do I have sufficient energy? Am I doing everything I can to keep physically strong?
■ Charisma. Charisma is a special personal quality that generates others’ interest and causes them to follow. Napoleon makes the point that great leaders are optimists and merchants of hope.41 Optimism, a sense of adventure, and commitment to a cause are traits found in charismatic leaders. These are qualities that unleash the potential of others and bring forth their energies. Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift.” The result is admiration, enthusiasm, and the loyalty of followers. Charismatic leaders in history include Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, and Elizabeth I. Author Jay Conger colorfully states: “Charismatic leaders are meaning makers. They pick and choose from the rough materials of reality and construct pictures of great possibilities. Their persuasion is of the subtlest kind, for they interpret reality to offer images of the future that are irresistible.” Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
As a leader, ask yourself, Do I possess a positive outlook and commitment in my demeanor that transforms followers to new levels of performance as well as personal loyalty to me?
■ Integrity. The most important quality of leadership is integrity, understood as honesty, strength of character, and courage. Without integrity there is no trust, the number one element in the leader–follower equation. Integrity leads to trust, and trust leads to respect, loyalty, and ultimately, action. It is trust coming from integrity that is needed for leading people from the boardroom, to the shop floor, to the battlefield.42 A model of integrity was George Washington, about whom it was written:
Endowed by nature with a sound judgment, and an accurate discriminating mind, he was guided by an unvarying sense of moral right, which would tolerate the employment only of those means that would bear the most rigid examination, by a fairness of intention which neither sought nor required disguise, and by a purity of virtue which was not only untainted but unsuspected.43
Washington’s abilities, his determination, and even his image all furthered his achievements, but his greatest legacy was his integrity. He was respected by everyone. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
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He refused ostentatious titles, insisting that in a republican country, he should be called simply “Mr. President.” When Washington died in 1799, Americans mourned the loss of the man known as “the father of his country.”44
As a leader, ask, Do my people trust me? Do they know that I seek the truth and that I am true to my word? Do they see that I possess strength of character and the courage of my convictions?
How do you rate on the 10 qualities of leadership: vision, ability, enthusiasm, stability, concern for others, self-confidence, persistence, vitality, charisma, and integrity? Do you have the qualities that inspire others to follow? Exercise 3–1will help you evaluate yourself (or a leader you know). Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
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Exercise 3–1 Ten Leadership Qualities—How Do You Rate?
Evaluate yourself (or a leader you know) on the following leadership qualities by circling a number from 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high).
1.Vision: a sense of what could and should be done
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.Ability: job knowledge and expertise to achieve results
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.Enthusiasm: personal commitment that invigorates and motivates people
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4.Stability: emotional adjustment and objectivity
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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5.Concern for others: service to followers and interest in their welfare
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6.Self-confidence: inner strength that comes from preparation and competence
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7.Persistence: determination to see tough tasks through to completion
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8.Vitality: strength and stamina
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9.Charisma: magnetic ability to attract people and cause them to follow
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10.Integrity: honesty, strength of character, and courage that generates trust
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Scoring and Interpretation:
Add all the circled numbers to find the overall score: _______________
Score
Evaluation
100–90
Excellent; exceptional
89–80
High; very good
79–70
Average; needs improvement
69–60
Low; much work needed
59 and below
Deficient; poor
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In The Storm of War, the definitive account of World War II, historian Andrew Roberts explains the victory of the Allied forces over the Axis powers traced to five main factors: (1) the ferocity of the Russian soldier fighting on his own soil; (2) the American arsenal of armaments from industrial might; (3) the acquiescence of the German Army to Hitler’s three errors—fighting England and Russia in a two-front war, declaring war on the United States too soon (before Japan bombed Pearl Harbor), perpetuating the holocaust on the Jewish people; (4) U.S. President Harry Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb; and (5) the remarkable leadership of Winston Churchill, whose determination “never to give in” proved to be stronger than the German Reich. In the following quotation, one can see the importance of leadership persistence in determining the course and conclusion of the greatest conflict in history—a World War that spanned the globe and claimed the lives of over 50 million people.45
I have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once again able to defend our Island home, to ride out the storm of war, and to outlive the menace of tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone. —Winston Churchill, House of Commons, 4 June 1940
“Negative” Leadership
There are some leaders who are not interested in doing good work, or not doing work in a good way. A special issue of the Leadership Quarterly focuses on destructive leadership, often referred to as the “dark side” of leadership.46Destructive leaders have a toxic effect on their workers and their organizations.47 Researcher Barbara Kellerman states valuable insights can be gained by examining qualities of poor leaders. Her analysis has uncovered six negative behaviors or flaws:
1.Incompetence. The leader lacks will or skill (or both) to sustain effective action.
2.Rigidity. The leader is closed-minded to new ideas, new information, or changing times.
3.Intemperance. The leader lacks self-control in personal habits and conduct.
4.Callousness. The leader is uncaring and unkind, discounting the needs of others.
5.Corruption. The leader puts self-interest ahead of public interest, and is willing to lie, cheat, or steal.
6.Cruelty. The leader commits atrocities inflicting physical and/or emotional pain on others.48
Similar findings are reported by Morgan McCall and Michael Lombardo in Off the Track: Why and How Successful Executives Get Derailed, published by The Center for Creative Leadership. Derailed leaders: Use a bullying style that is intimidating and abrasive; are viewed as being cold, aloof, and arrogant; betray personal trust; are viewed as self-centered, overly ambitious, and thinking of the next job; have specific business performance problems; and overmanage and are unable to delegate or build a team.49. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
There are consistent findings across studies of leadership promotion (success) and leadership derailment (failure). One finding is that both promoted and derailed leaders are smart, ambitious, and have good technical expertise. A second finding is that derailed leaders exhibit one or more behavioral patterns not evident in leaders who succeed. The following are five derailment patterns:
1.Failure to meet performance objectives.
2.Inability to build and lead a team.
3.Inability to build positive relations with co-workers.
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4.Inability to adapt to changing bosses, followers, and situations.
5.Inadequate preparation for promotion.
Most derailed leaders have more than one derailment pattern. The most serious derailment pattern is the failure to meet performance objectives.50 To personalize the subject, consider individuals you have known who have failed or derailed as leaders as the result of negative behaviors or flaws. What were the consequences?
Characteristics of Followers
The word follower is rooted in the Old German word follaziohan, which means to help, serve, and assist. Two characteristics of followers that influence the leadership process are respect for authority and interpersonal trust. People who respect authority figures and have a trusting nature are led more easily than people who disregard authorities and are suspicious of others. (Exercise 3–2 evaluates susceptibility to follow, based on the trust you have in others.). Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors
A general decline is evident in the level of trust employees have in leadership personnel in American society. The tendency to withhold trust and be self-guarded can be traced to a number of factors: (1) breakdown of the traditional family structure; (2) decline of a wide range of social structures, such as schools, churches, and neighborhoods; (3) lack of shared values and a sense of community as the society has focused on individual advantage and self-absorption; and, perhaps most important, (4) case after case in which highly visible and influential leadership figures are discovered putting self-interest over the public good—clear evidence that too many leaders violate the trust that they have been given.51
Attitudes toward authority have been changing in Western society, and effective leadership today requires adjustment to the ideas and expectations of a new generation of followers. In the past, the leader in the work setting typically was a taskmaster who ruled with a strong arm and forced employees to obey or face the consequences. If employees failed to show respect or follow orders, they were threatened with dismissal or other punishment. Over the years, employees have developed defenses to protect themselves. They have organized unions to represent their interests, and labor legislation has been created to protect workers from arbitrary firing or mistreatment. In addition, management has learned that people who feel oppressed usually respond in negative ways—slowing down production, producing poor-quality work, and being uncooperative.52
Today’s effective leaders do not use the power tactics of the past. Modern managers find that the practice of threatening employees is usually counterproductive. Instead, they view their task as one of motivating employees to do their best. In adopting this approach, leaders function as facilitators and teachers as opposed to enforcers and disciplinarians, believing that trust and respect should be earned, not demanded. With this approach, the response of the good follower is in the tradition of the apprentice, disciple, and student—one of reliable effort and loyalty to the leader.53
Effective leaders and effective followers have many common qualities—integrity, ability, commitment, and so on. Two qualities that are necessary for organizational success are high involvement and critical thinking. Leaders and followers who care deeply and think well make a powerful team.54
The Importance of Trust
Management authors Stuart Levine and Michael Crom write about building trust in the workplace. They identify six principles of trust for leadership effectiveness:
1. Deal openly with everyone. Hidden agendas will erode people’s trust in you, while also showing that you don’t trust them. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
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2. Consider all points of view. See situations from the other person’s perspective. Show that although you may not agree with them, you do respect the views of others.
3. Keep promises. Never say you will do one thing and then do another. If you can’t do what you have promised, explain why; don’t try to hide the fact that you couldn’t keep your word. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
4. Give responsibility. As a leader, you have bottom-line expectations. Explain your expectations to employees; then let them use their talent, education, and experience to achieve results.
5. Listen to understand. Situations may arise that at first appear as though someone is untrustworthy. Missed deadlines, unreasonable expenses, and deviations from standard practices are examples. By simply asking what is happening instead of assuming the worst, you will build a trusting relationship. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
6. Care about people. This principle will have a major impact on how people react to you and to situations. If they know you care about them, they will be honest with you and will do all they can to meet your expectations.55
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Exercise 3–2 Interpersonal Trust Scale56
The following is a survey of a number of work and social issues. Respond to each item on the basis of your own experience and judgment in dealing with people. Many views are represented in this survey. You may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing with others, and perhaps being undecided about others. Whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Circle the response that shows the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement.
1.The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want to hear.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
2.It is hard to get ahead without cutting corners here and there.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
3.Anyone who completely trusts someone else is asking for trouble.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
4.When you ask someone to do something for you, it is best to give the real reasons for the request rather than giving reasons that might carry more weight.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
5.It is safest to assume that all people have a vicious streak and that it will come out when they are given a chance to use it.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
6.One should take action only when sure it is morally right.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
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7.Most people are basically good and kind.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
8.There is no valid reason for lying to someone else.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
9.Most people forget more easily the death of their father than the loss of their property.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
10.Generally speaking, people won’t work hard unless they are forced to do so.
a.Strongly disagree
b.Disagree
c.Undecided
d.Agree
e.Strongly agree
Scoring:
Complete Steps 1 and 2.
Step 1:
In the following key, circle the score that corresponds to your answer for each item of the questionnaire:
1.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
2.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
3.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
4.a.1
b.2
c.3
d.4
e.5
5.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
6.a.1
b.2
c.3
d.4
e.5
7.a.1
b.2
c.3
d.4
e.5
8.a.1
b.2
c.3
d.4
e.5
9.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
10.a.5
b.4
c.3
d.2
e.1
Step 2:
Add your scores; then divide the total by 10:
Total score _________________ ÷ 10 = _________________
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Interpretation:
Scores on the Interpersonal Trust Scale, which range from 1.0 to 5.0 (see Figure 3–1), show your tendency to trust people. Typically, the higher the score on the scale, the more trust you have in the inherent decency of others. A high score may also reflect susceptibility to suggestion from others. The lower the score on the scale, the less trusting you would be expected to be of others. A low score may also reflect a tendency to manipulate others in accomplishing goals. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
Figure 3–1 Interpersonal Trust Scale
Reprinted with permission from Psychology Today Magazine, copyright 1970, Sussex Publishers, Inc.
Score
Characteristics
1.0–2.0
This person believes that most people seek personal advantage, even at the expense of others; thus, the best course of action is self-protection. The 1.0–2.0 individual may manipulate others in interpersonal relations and avoid making personal commitments. Such a person is often difficult to lead.
2.1–3.0
This person is generally suspicious of the motives of others and tends toward skepticism and self-reliance rather than seeking assistance or direction. The 2.1–3.0 individual will usually act independently, rather than ask for help or delegate, believing the best way to get something done is to do it oneself.
3.1–4.0
This person has confidence in the basic decency of others, combined with an evaluation of the merits of the situation. The 3.1–4.0 individual will usually trust others temporarily, yet reserve final judgment.
4.1–5.0
This person believes that people are essentially good and therefore readily trusts others. Such a person may not look below the surface of things. The 4.1–5.0 individual is easily persuaded and should be encouraged to look at all sides of an argument before making a decision.
Review your interpersonal trust scores. What is your tendency? Do you lean toward suspicion and self-reliance? Do you tend to be trusting and suggestible? Or are you, like most people, somewhere in the middle? Given your level of trust, are you typically easy or difficult to lead?
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Situational Factors
In addition to qualities of the leader and characteristics of followers, many situational factors influence the leadership process. The following is a discussion of important situational factors, including the size of the organization, the social and psychological climate, patterns of employment, and the type, place, and purpose of work performed. Also included is a discussion of leader–follower compatibility.
■ Size of the organization. Studies show that the size of an organization demands a certain type of leadership skill. A small organization needs a leader who is both a salesperson and a production manager. Outside the organization, the leader is the organization’s chief advocate, personally meeting with clients and winning their loyalty. On the inside, the leader organizes the work, assigns tasks, coaches employees, and evaluates progress. In contrast, the leader of a large organization devotes efforts primarily to the organization’s public image and its investment and growth plans. Leaders of large organizations think in broad terms about the community and the marketplace, considering how the organization can be placed best in both.57
■ Social and psychological climate. Social and psychological factors such as confusion, anxiety, and despair can also influence the leadership process. Consider pre–World War II Germany, where a great depression and the inactivity of the people seemed intolerable:
The streets of German towns were full of millions of unemployed waiting for the dole, which was scarcely sufficient to provide for the indispensable needs of daily life. These observations were common to everyone who lived in Germany during the years preceding Hitler’s advent to power. The lack of such an important educational factor as compulsory military service on the one hand, and the plague of unemployment on the other, produced their inevitable consequences in the slope of a deplorable moral relaxation and in a not less deplorable decrease of patriotism. In these circumstances that were ripe for leadership, Adolf Hitler came to power.58
■ Patterns of employment. In his book The Age of Unreason, management author Charles Handy describes how contemporary patterns of work are changing in fundamental ways. He describes the “shamrock” organization, in which there are three workforces supporting an organization, but only one leaf of the shamrock is permanent and full-time; the other two are (1) part-time or temporary or both, and (2) independent workers and contractors who form alliances with the organization to perform specified tasks. Handy describes how the seemingly unusual work assignments of our day—working at home, flextime, independent contractors, networks of professionals, associations, virtual offices and companies, and the like—are part of a new pattern of work that adds to the challenge of leadership.59
■ Type, place, and purpose of work. The type of work to be done is an important factor in the leadership process. Leadership studies show that, in general, when the work to be done is clear-cut, routine, or monotonous, a nondirective and supportive approach is best. If work duties are defined loosely, a directive and task orientation is needed until roles, responsibilities, and relationships are clarified.60
Also important are the contexts of place and purpose. Where is the setting, and what is the goal? Is the place the farm, the factory, or the lab? Is the purpose selling or serving? Is the task shipbuilding or singing? What is the challenge—starting a business or minding the store? Is the organization in the public sector, such as leading a city, county, or state? One can imagine the special challenge of collaboration across public sector and nonprofit organizational entities. All these factors of the situation have tremendous influence on who will light the path and how bright the light will be.
Different Kinds of Intelligence
Intelligence plays a role in the leader–follower–situation equation. Intelligence is defined as cognitive ability, or the ability to perform mental tasks. Intelligence is multidimensional, including both convergent thinking where there is one right answer and divergent thinking where there can be many right answers. Essay Assignment Papers – Leadership Qualities, Characteristics of Followers, and Situational Factors.
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Crystallized intelligence represents one’s lifetime of intellectual attainments, as shown by vocabulary, accumulated facts about the world, and ability to solve problems within one’s area of expertise. It includes comprehension of information and the ability to communicate in oral and written forms. Crystallized intelligence can be increased over time.
Fluid intelligence involves mental flexibility, as shown by the ability to process information rapidly, as in solving problems in new areas of endeavor. People draw upon fluid intelligence in novel situations or when conventional solutions fail. It includes reasoning, creative
